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|conventional_long_name = Qing dynasty |common_name = Qing dynasty |continent = Asia |region = East Asia |country = China |era = Imperial era |status = |status_text = |year_start = 1644 |year_end = 1912 |date_end = 12 February |event_start = Qing conquest of the Ming |event_end = Abdication of Puyi |event1 = First Opium War |date_event1 = 1839–42 |event2 = Second Opium War |date_event2 = 1856–60 |event3 = Sino-Japanese War |date_event3 = 1 August 1894 – 17 April 1895 |event4 = Xinhai Revolution |date_event4 = 10 October 1911 |event_pre = |date_pre = |p1 = Ming dynasty |s1 = Republic of China (1912–49) |flag_s1 = Flag of the Republic of China 1912-1928.svg |image_flag = Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1889-1912).svg |flag = Flag of the Qing dynasty |flag_type = Flag |image_coat = |symbol = |symbol_type = |image_map = 18 century Qing China.png |image_map_caption = Qing dynasty at its greatest extent in 1820 |national_anthem = "Gong Jin'ou" ("Cup of Solid Gold") |capital = Beijing (Shuntian Prefecture) |latd=39|latm=54|latNS=N|longd=116|longm=23|longEW=E |common_languages = Mandarin, Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, Turki (Modern Uighur), numerous regional languages and varieties of Chinese |government_type = Absolute monarchy (1644-1911) Constitutional monarchy (1911-1912)〔Legrand, Jacques. ''Chronicle of the 20th Century.'' 1992. Page 155.〕 |title_leader = Emperor |leader1 = Shunzhi (first) |year_leader1 = 1644–1661 |leader2 = Puyi (last) |year_leader2 = 1908–1912 | |title_representative = Regent |representative1 = Zaifeng |year_representative1 = 1908–1912 | |deputy1 = Yikuang |deputy2 = Yuan Shikai |year_deputy1 = 1911 |year_deputy2 = 1911–1912 |title_deputy = Prime Minister | |religion = Heaven worship, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, Taoism, Islam, Shamanism, others |stat_year1 = 1760 est.(incl. vassals) |stat_area1 = 13150000 |stat_year2 = 1790 |stat_area2 = |stat_year3 = 1740 |stat_pop3 = 140,000,000 |stat_year4 = 1776 |stat_pop4 = 268,238,000 |stat_year5 = 1790 |stat_pop5 = 301,000,000 |stat_year6 = 1812 |stat_pop6 = 361,000,000 |stat_year7 = 1820 |stat_pop7 = 383,100,000 |stat_year8 = 1851 |stat_pop8 = 408,000,000 |stat_year9 = 1865 |stat_pop9 = 367,000,000 |stat_year10 = 1898 |stat_pop10 = 395,918,000 |currency = Cash (wén) Tael (liǎng) |today = }} The Qing dynasty (; ), officially the Great Qing〔 (), also called the Empire of the Great Qing, or the Manchu dynasty, was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the territorial base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria. In the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Jurchen clans into "Banners", military-social units. Nurhaci formed these clans into a unified entity, the subjects of which became known collectively as the Manchu people. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, the Qing. In 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital Beijing. Rather than serve them, Ming general Wu Sangui made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Banner Armies led by Prince Dorgon, who defeated the rebels and seized Beijing. The conquest of China proper was not completed until 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722). The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia. While the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their official title was Emperor they were known as khans to the Mongols and patronized Tibetan Buddhism, they governed using Confucian styles and institutions of bureaucratic government. They retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the tributary system in international relations, and in places such as Taiwan, the Qing so-called internal foreign policy closely resembled colonial policy and control. The reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1735–1796) saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity and imperial control. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, virtually guaranteeing eventual fiscal crisis. Corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, extraterritoriality and treaty ports under foreign control. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–64) and Dungan Revolt (1862–77) in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people. In spite of these disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order and the Qing rulers. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea and the possession of Taiwan. New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days' Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a ruthless but capable leader. When, in response to the violently anti-foreign Yihetuan ("Boxers"), foreign powers invaded China, the Empress Dowager declared war on them, leading to defeat and the flight of the Imperial Court to Xi'an. After agreeing to sign the Boxer Protocol the government then initiated unprecedented fiscal and administrative reforms, including elections, a new legal code, and abolition of the examination system. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformers such as Liang Qichao and monarchists such as Kang Youwei to transform the Qing empire into a modern nation. After the death of Empress Dowager Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. Local uprisings starting on October 11, 1911 led to the Xinhai Revolution. Puyi, the last emperor, abdicated on February 12, 1912. == Names == (詳細はNurhaci declared himself the "Bright Khan" of the ''Later Jin'' (lit. "gold") state in honor both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan (''Aisin'' being Manchu for the Chinese (''jīn'', "gold")). His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty ''Great Qing'' in 1636. There are competing explanations on the meaning of ''Qīng'' (lit. "clear" or "pure"). The name may have been selected in reaction to the name of the Ming dynasty (), which consists of the Chinese characters for "sun" () and "moon" (), both associated with the fire element of the Chinese zodiacal system. The character ''Qīng'' () is composed of "water" () and "azure" (), both associated with the water element. This association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water. The water imagery of the new name may also have had Buddhist overtones of perspicacity and enlightenment and connections with the Bodhisattva Manjusri. The Manchu name ''daicing'', which sounds like a phonetic rendering of ''Dà Qīng'' or ''Dai Ching'', may in fact have been derived from a Mongolian word that means "warrior". ''Daicing gurun'' may therefore have meant "warrior state", a pun that was only intelligible to Manchu and Mongol people. In the later part of the dynasty, however, even the Manchus themselves had forgotten this possible meaning. After conquering "China proper", the Manchus identified their state as "China" (中國, ''Zhōngguó''; "Middle Kingdom"), and referred to it as ''Dulimbai Gurun'' in Manchu (''Dulimbai'' means "central" or "middle," ''gurun'' means "nation" or "state"). The emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including present day Northeast China, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, and rejecting the idea that "China" only meant Han areas. The Qing emperors proclaimed that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China." They used both "China" and "Qing" to refer to their state in official documents, international treaties (as the Qing was known internationally as "China"〔Treaty of Nanking. 1842.〕 or the "Chinese Empire"〔McKinley, William. "Second State of the Union Address". 5 Dec. 1898.〕) and foreign affairs, and "Chinese language" (''Dulimbai gurun i bithe'') included Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and "Chinese people" (中國之人 ''Zhōngguó zhī rén''; Manchu: ''Dulimbai gurun i niyalma'') referred to all subjects of the empire. In the Chinese-language versions of its treaties and its maps of the world, the Qing government used "Qing" and "China" interchangeably.〔Bilik, Naran. "Names Have Memories: History, Semantic Identity and Conflict in Mongolian and Chinese Language Use." ''Inner Asia'' 9.1 (2007): 23–39. p. 34〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Qing dynasty」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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